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Mostafa Younesie

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Introduction

Suleyman Haim (1887-1970), author, scholar and prolific lexicologist, was a member of Tehran’s thriving Jewish community in the 1900s.¹ Although not remembered for his religious plays based on Torah narratives, he is celebrated for his significant contributions to lexicography in Iran. Haim’s corpus included a 2 volume English-Persian Dictionary, The New Persian-English Dictionary, also in 2 volumes, an abridged English-Persian Dictionary in one volume, The Shorter English-Persian Dictionary, Dictionnaire Francais-Persan, Hebrew-Persian Dictionary, and finally, a Persian-English dictionary of proverbs and idioms. His oeuvre showcases his prowess as a Jewish scholar, lexicologist and dramatist.

Still in circulation after a century, his dictionaries sought to purify and modernize the Persian language by purging foreign borrowings in recognition of a nascent national identity.

Haim’s last project was a Hebrew-Persian dictionary, on which he was working at the time of his death. He consulted with Avraham Even-Shoshan, compiler of the Even-Shoshan dictionary, and even traveled to Israel for this project, illustrating his deep commitment to his Jewish faith and heritage. In spite of his numerous contributions, Haim’s corpus remains largely unstudied. In fact, his dictionaries are not even mentioned in the annals of Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires.² Nonetheless, there are numerous attestations to his talent and skill in the available literature, which is mostly public and non-specialist. For instance, he gained widespread recognition for his impressive command of Persian literature, proficiency in at least eight languages, ease in using various Iranian dialects, and meticulous attention to scientific terminology.³

Theoretical Framework

The focus in this study is on Haim’s فرهنگ بزرگ انگلیسی – فارسی, a two-volume lexicon containing approximately 80,000 entries and 30,000 examples, printed in the first half of the 20th century. Bilingual dictionaries present the lexicon and phraseology of one language and translate it into another language, making “translation” a central aspect of this definition. In the context of a bilingual dictionary, this means that isolated words and phrases should be “translated” and their “equivalents” found or developed by a bilingual lexicographer.⁴

In discussing a bilingual dictionary, the term “word-translation” refers to the concept of “equivalence.” Haim’s philosophy of word-translation refers to his “approach” in selecting Persian equivalents for English words and phrases. However, equivalence cannot be viewed as a standalone concept, it is part of a complex system that includes pair components like “fact-metaphor,” “extension-intension,” and “denotation-connotation.”

I aim to understand Haim’s approach to word-translation by analyzing his use of categories such as ‘fact-metaphor’, ‘extension-intension’, and ‘denotation-connotation’. To achieve this, I will thoroughly examine Haim’s English-Persian dictionary from 1933 and 1943 (in 2 volumes and comprising 2,700 pages) and his Persian-English proverbs from 1956 (830 pages long). Additionally, I will reference the Oxford and Webster dictionaries from the 1930s and 1940s, as Haim relied on them in his own work.

 

Application

Thinking about “equivalence” as a concept draws attention to the vexed notion of “reality.” This is because words are somehow connected to reality. The word “reality” can be understood in both factual and metaphorical ways. Philosophically speaking, the term “reality” encompasses actuality, physical existence, corporeality, substantiality, and nature. The emphasis, however, is on actuality.⁵

Haim’s bilingual dictionary includes both the factual and metaphorical aspects of reality. In this discussion, I will focus on reality as a “fact” and explore its various relationships with the concept of “word” in English and Persian, which are the source and target languages, respectively. There are three possibilities to consider: first, that English and Persian have a shared reality; second, that the reality exists in English but not in Persian, in which case Haim will suggest appropriate words and phrases; and third, that there is a Persian equivalent for the English word, but Haim’s lexicon highlights a different aspect of the same reality. It is important to note that these cases are culturally dependent. We will now examine each case using Haim’s bilingual lexicon.

Reality as Fact

Reality may be divided into several sub-categories, one of which is factuality. Haim defines the English word “fact” as something that has happened and been made real. From this, we can explore the various connections between the English word “fact” and its Persian counterpart ‘.امر محقق ، واقع، فعل’.

There is a common reality—nuances notwithstanding—shared between English and Persian. For example, the words ‘fact’ in English and ‘امر محقق’ in Persian refer to the same reality. Haim provides many examples of this phenomenon, such as the words ‘chair’ and ‘مقام ریاست’ which are equivalents in both languages, with the latter being a metaphorical expansion of the former in Persian without any gender tag. When it comes to words such as ‘house’ or ‘home,’ Haim notes the distinctions between them in English while providing specific Persian equivalents such as ‘خانه’، ‘خاندان’، ‘برج’، and ‘مجلس’ for ‘house’ and ‘خانه’، ‘اسایشگاه’، and ‘وطن’ for ‘home’. Interestingly, the Persian verbal equivalents for these English words are exclusively ‘خانه کردن’. Another example is the word ‘Zionism’, which Haim translates as ‘هواخواهی از اصول تمرکز دادن بنی اسراییل در فلسطین’, which is a historical definition of the term for Iranians.⁶

In addition, the author introduces a Persian transliteration for the noun “pariah” that includes a historical phrasal compound, indicating both its origin and extended meaning: پاریا: هندی طبقه پست – شخص مردود یا منفور’.⁷ Additionally, various Persian, Avestan, and Arabic sources provide different equivalents for the word “God” in Persian (خدا), Avestan (ایزد), and Arabic (الله), which raises the question of whether they refer to the same entity.⁸

Another interesting example is the Persian translation of the words “colony” and “colonize.” Haim primarily uses Arabic-Persian terms that have a strong connection to people and inhabiting, such as “مهاجر نشین، کوچ نشین، مستعمره [از ریشه عمران و ابادی]، نو آباد,” to refer to the singular noun “colony.” Similarly, he uses “استعمار کردن، معمور کردن” to convey the infinitive “to colonize” with the same force.⁹

Lastly, we mention Haim’s Persian equivalent for word [N]negro which is the compound word ‘Black African.’¹⁰

The word “reality” is a common term in English that does not have a direct equivalent in Persian. Haim developed innovative ways of compensating for such instances of discordance which exist in varying degrees in any natural language. For example, Haim has taken the English word “cravat” and transliterated it to “کراوات” in, while also adding a Persian compound term, “neckerchief,” that is typically used for a different purpose.¹¹

For the word “apartment,” which was not commonly understood in Iran when Haim was preparing his dictionary, he offers a vague description, “یک دست اتاق یا عمارت- قسمتی ازعمارت,” a room or part of a building that is undefined.¹²Similarly, the word ‘automobile’ is transliterated in Persian as ‘اتوموبیل’ and accompanied by the alternative translation of ‘vehicle or automatic carriage’ in parentheses.¹³

For the term “animation,” Haim suggested a number of interesting equivalents, including “جان بخشی –تحریک – سرزندگی”.¹⁴  While these translations are significant from a historical and general perspective, they do not accurately convey the fundamental meaning of animation. We have also come across incomplete translations for the originally French noun “resume,” which is rendered as “خلاصه” and “مختصر,” “summary” and “nutshell” respectively.¹⁵

Curiously, Haim associates the word ‘folklore’ with ‘fairytales and superstitions,’ since he renders it as ‘ خرافات ، افسانه’.¹⁶

Lastly, Haim uses several phrases that link government with people, nation, and public, including “اصول حکومت ملی – جمهور – توده ملت – حکومت ملی”. He also equates democracy with these phrases, which is a new concept in Iranian political and intellectual history.¹⁷

At times, Haim’s lexicon emphasizes a different aspect of a given concept even if a direct Persian equivalent is identified. For instance, he uses the general verb “نطق کردن” for the intransitive verb “declaim” instead of the Persian equivalent, or its transliteration.¹⁸ In certain instances, the term “declaim” refers to a dramatic style of speaking that is often used on stage or in speeches. However, Haim emphasized its general meaning without going into specific details.

Interestingly, Haim uses the philosophical terms “وجود و کون” to refer to the “existent and generative world” and “orderliness”, which are two Persian equivalents with classical shades for the noun “cosmos”. It is interesting to note that “cosmos” is originally a Greek word with a long history.¹⁹

He suggests two Persian compound equivalents for the term “political economy.” He prefers the term “science of wealth” or ‘علم ثروت’ over the more literal and commonly used equivalent, “اقتصاد سیاسی.”²⁰

Furthermore, Haim provides three Persian equivalents for the word ‘etymology’. The first one, ‘علم اشتقاق لغات’, is the exact science of word derivation. The other two, ‘معرفت به اقسام کلمه’ and ‘علم صرف’, refer to the knowledge of word kinds and the science of accidence, respectively. Further reflection may be necessary to fully understand the latter two.²¹

Finally, Haim introduces the terms ‘صورت خیالی ، خیال’ which mean imaginative forms and imagination, and ‘تمثال’ which is a duplicate of the English noun ‘simulacrum’.²² These terms may make it difficult for readers to understand the core meaning of the word, but they also point to another aspect of the English noun.

Reality as Metaphor

Following our examination of the factual components of reality in three sub-divisions, we will now delve into the concept of “metaphor” as another facet of “reality”. Haim also notes the presence of a similar concept within the realm of Arabic oratory and its relation to words in general.²³ To investigate this aspect of reality, we refer nce Haim’s “Persian-English Proverbs–    امثال فارسی- انگلیسی ” (1956). This book is a valuable resource that complements the English-Persian dictionary but has received little attention in scholarly literature.

 

Some entries in his lexicon express a metaphorical reality and appear in both languages. These entries meet all the criteria for equivalence as lexical items. An example of a metaphorical term for “close-fisted” is proposed by Haim with the phrase ” دست خشک، خسیس /dry-handed, parsimonious,” which may be used as a proverb.²⁴ This same phrase is found in his bilingual dictionary.²⁵ Similarly, the Persian term ‘سنگدل’ is rendered as ‘hard-hearted’. This term refers to a heart that is like a lifeless stone, lacking in feeling and spirit but is not found in Haim’s bilingual proverbs.²⁶ Additionally, there is a Persian compound word that means the same as “lion-hearted” in English. This word is “شیر دل”.²⁷

An issue arises when looking for the Persian equivalent of the phrase ‘divide and rule’ in terms of both grammar and meaning. The equivalent phrase is ‘تفرقه بیانداز و حکومت کن (یا فتح کن)’) though it is not found in Haim bilingual lexicon.²⁸ Likewise, the same Persian proverb “نوش با نیش است” can be compared to the English saying “no joy without alloy” that is not included in his bilingual dictionary.²⁹ There is also Haim’s ‘کذا و کذا’ for the English compound ‘so and so’ or ‘such and such.’³⁰

Certain expressions in English have no direct equivalent in Persian, so they must be translated based on the underlying meaning of the proverb. Haim does a good job of capturing the moral or practical essence of the proverb when he is most successful. For instance, he suggests that the Persian proverb “با شکیبایی و مرور زمان کارها درست می شود” which means “with patience and the passage of time, things will be done” is the equivalent of the English proverb “Rome was not built in a day.”³¹ The suggested expression has a broad interpretation and could even be seen as advice. However, a Persian user new to the lexicon may not be aware of the historical and cultural biases inherent in the English expression. While this may be a shortcoming, it is consistently applied.

We also observe that he uses the phrase ‘سیاه آفریقایی ، سیاه زنگی’ as a neutral Persian equivalent for the word ‘negro.’³² He uses the same equivalent for ‘nigger’ too without informing the Persian reader of its embedded racial bias.³³

Haim shows a biased preference towards the word ‘orient’ compared to ‘east’ and provides the Persian equivalent ‘مشرق’ as a geographical reference for the first word;³⁴ and  خاور ، مشرق’ ‘زمین، شرق and ‘مروارید درخشان’ for the second which entails, inter alia, a geographical component.³⁵

In addition, the Persian translations for ‘imperialism’, such as ‘امپراطوری قوا و اختیارات یک نفر امپراطور، توسعه حدود مملکت’, are too literal and fail to convey its true essence.³⁶

Finally, we observe various synonyms for the noun ‘community,’ includingجامعه، هیات” “ملت”, “امت”, “اشتراک”, and “یگانگی,” which all have distinct meanings;³⁷ in contrast to his equivalents ‘انجمن و مجمع’, ‘جامعه و اجتماع’, ‘صحبت و معاشرت’, ‘شرکت’, for ‘society.’³⁸

Calques

After examining several entries, a series of lexicographical choices emerge that represent Haim’s philosophy of word-translation. However, some English entries do not have a direct equivalent in the target language, so Haim uses word-to-word borrowing and importing, also known as calques. One example is the Arabic word احسنت which literally translates to “bravo; good job,” and is used by Haim to translate “well done.”³⁹ The Arabic calque mentioned above has the advantage of providing a concise and straightforward word-translation that was not commonly used by Persian speakers during the author’s time but is now more widely used. However, the bilingual dictionary user may not grasp the full metaphorical meaning of the Persian equivalent, which is not reflected in the word-translation. Therefore, while this word-translation has many strengths, it is not a perfect match.

Another such example is the use of ‘سیب زمینی’ for ‘potato.’⁴⁰ The Persian word for “potato” is actually a calque from the French phrase “pomme de terre,” which can be confusing for Persian readers. Or, the word “kindergarten” which is often translated as “کودکستان,” also a calque that may be unfamiliar to some readers.⁴¹

Haim chose well not to use the term “ماه عسل” for “honeymoon,” as it is a direct translation that may not be clear to Persian readers. Instead, he used the phrase “ماه اول عروسی,” which means “the first month of marriage.”⁴² Similarly, his translation for ‘Adam’s apple’ is relatively appropriate and comprehensible. Instead of providing a direct and literal translation, he offers three technical terms: ‘حلقوم’, ‘بَرنا ناقولوسی’, and ‘برامدگی’, all of which refer to the protrusion on the front of the throat.⁴³ Likewise, Haim translates the complex phrase “دلتنگی برای میهن” as “nostalgia” in English, which derives from the Greek “νοσταλγός”.⁴⁴ Additionally, it should be noted that when referring to “the Milky Way,” Heim avoids using direct word-translation and instead opts for the term “کهکشان – galaxy” and “آسمان دَرّه – deep sky,” although the latter term may be subject to debate.⁴⁵

Haim attempts to find a balance between pure calques and expositive equivalents. An example of this is seen with the word ‘skyscraper’. Haim provides the calque ‘آسمان خراش’ and an exposition in square brackets [ساختمان بسیار بلند] to clarify the meaning for Persian readers.⁴⁶ On the same line, there is the phrase ‘(نقطه) نظر’ which is a calque, and a short equivalent of ‘لحاظ’ for the English word ‘viewpoint’. ‘Viewpoint’ is a calque from the French phrase ‘point de vue.’⁴⁷

Here is an interesting fact: The word “cafe” has two translations in Persian – “قهوه خانه” and “رستوران.” The English word comes from the French “café” and in Persian, it is usually rendered as a compound word meaning “coffee house.” However, the other translation “رستوران” as a French transliteration is used without any qualification, it means “restaurant” in Persian.⁴⁸

To be more specific, Haim provides the literal religious compound calque ‘بز طلیقه’ as the translation for the English noun ‘scapegoat.’ He also offers two compound forms and a sentence to explain its usual and customary meaning ‘سپر بلا’; ‘وجه المصالحه,’ and ‘کسیکه چوب دیگران را می خورد’.⁴⁹

Another example is using ‘همه جایی’ as a calque and ‘معمولی، مبتذل’ as the equivalent of the adjective ‘commonplace.’⁵⁰ In addition, he uses both ‘فوتبال’ in Persian transliteration and ‘توپ بازی با پا’ as a compound calque for the term ‘football.’⁵¹ He has done the same thing regarding ‘radio,’⁵² and ‘television.’⁵³ From these Persian equivalents, it becomes apparent that Haim addresses new phenomena in a specific manner that resonates with the semantic field of Persian and its corresponding historical experience.

Metaphorical English Entries and Proverbial Persian Equivalents

In the meantime, there are English metaphors that do not have a direct word-translation in the target language. Haim uses his impressive command of Persian to translate them. As an example, he proposes the phrase آسمان و ریسمان’,’which literally translates to “sky and rope” as a rough equivalent to the English phrase “chalk and cheese”.⁵⁴ In both English and Persian, one can notice that the two paired items differ greatly in their characteristics. However, there is a similarity in the sounds of the two Persian words, particularly in the “s”, “m”, “a”, and “n” sounds, creating an internal rhyme that grants a satisfying rhythm and wholesomeness to the traditional phrase. This example shows that Haim is not just a passive or mechanical lexicographer-translator. He uses his vast knowledge of both languages and their usages, along with his superb literary style, to find or coin a suitable and comparable compound metaphorical equivalence for English expressions that is clear and accessible to Persian-speaking users of his dictionary.

Sometimes, Haim does not use a metaphor to translate English words into Persian. For example, ‘دلشکسته’ is the direct translation of ‘broken-hearted.’⁵⁵ However, in Persian, ‘break’ is typically used for inanimate objects, not for the heart which is a living organ. Therefore, Persian readers may make their own metaphorical interpretations.

Haim translates the word ‘touchstone’ as ‘سنگ محک’ in the first step. However, it appears that Haim believes the Persian reader may be unsure of its true meaning. Therefore, he provides a relatively literal word- translation followed by its metaphorical sense معیار’.’ This allows him to combine both the literal and metaphorical meanings of the term.⁵⁶

In the Persian language, “a victory that costs greatly” is a phrase similar in meaning to the English metaphor “Pyrrhic victory.”⁵⁷ However, unlike the English term, the Persian translation may not always remind the reader of Pyrrhus, the Greek king and statesman, and his actions.

Nevertheless, there are exceptions, such as Haim’s two entries for “Gordian knot.” The first entry provides an origin for the term, which derives from the actions of Gordius, king of Phrygia, and the second entry explains its metaphorical meaning as a “complex or unsolvable problem, or مشکل ،عقده.”⁵⁸ .

In the entry for ‘pedlar’s French,’ the metaphorical equivalent ‘زبان ویژه دزدان’ is used, which has no connection to the literal meaning of French term.⁵⁹

For ‘ambidexter,’ Haim provides the literal Arabic meaning of ‘ذوالیمینین’ and adds a Persian sentence in parentheses explaining the term: (کسیکه هر دو دست بخوبی در فرمان او باشد); and lastly, gives its metaphorical equivalent ‘آدم ریاکار یا دورو’.⁶⁰

If we focus on Haim’s second Persian equivalent, we can make an intriguing and playful connection between the Persian phrase ‘دل دل کردن’ and the English compound verbal phrase ‘dilly-dally’. Both phrases repeat the sounds ‘d’ and ‘l’ at the beginning and middle, making for an interesting juxtaposition.⁶¹

Haim uses the transliteration ‘کودتا’ for the French phrase ‘coup d’état’ simultaneously,⁶²

as we know that he is knowledgeable in French as well. However, in this particular entry, he only provides a transliteration without any explanation, even parenthetically, which is the customary style in his bilingual dictionary. To clarify, he uses the Persian phrase ‘زیر دریایی آلمانی’ to refer to ‘U-boat’. His phrase is a relatively clear clarification, rather than an ambiguous literal equivalent.⁶³

To Haim, the term ‘canon’ may be expressed through several words, including ‘قانون، قاعده، تورات، وانجیل’ which correspond to ‘law, rule, Torah, and Bible.’ He utilizes the first set of words to convey the fundamental definition of ‘canon,’ while the second set serve to exemplify his point, even though neither are exhaustive. In this manner, he provides the Persian readers with examples to grasp the second meaning.⁶⁴

Translating English metaphors into Persian is a daunting task. An example of this is the English phrase “once upon a time,” which indicates that the story that follows is not set in a specific timeline, but rather in a vague, fantastical space and time. To translate this opening phrase, Haim recommends the Persian proverbial phrase “یکی بود یکی نبود,” which translates literally into “there was one, there was not one.’⁶⁵ This phrase, like “once upon a time,” poetically and ambiguously situates the narrative that follows in the realm of fantasy, distinguishing it from reality. The remarkable staying power of the phrase deserves mention, as it remains the opening line of choice for most children’s stories in Iran today.

Apparently, Persian users of Haim’s lexicon have not encountered any problems or surprises with the Persian equivalents provided therein, which are typically reliable and useful, although they may occasionally contain more or less information than necessary. Therefore, it is fair to consider Haim’s word-translation choices as “approximations” rather than exact “equivalents.”

Denotation/Connotation

Upon completing our examination of both the factual and metaphorical aspects of reality, we move on to our next main topic, namely the various associations of Persian equivalents to English words that go beyond facts and metaphors. How did Haim approach the relationship between denotation and connotation? Denotation refers to the objective reality, while connotation refers to cultural associations.⁶⁶ This is an important aspect of Haim’s philosophy of lexical translation. Ideally, bilingual lexicographers should provide both denotation and connotation for each entry. Therefore, we will examine how Haim represents the denotation and connotation of English words when they are translated into Persian.

There are instances where the denotation and connotation of Persian and English terms are identical, sanctioning the Persian equivalents. One such example is the term “labial,” which translates to “لبی” in Persian. This word means “pertaining to the lips” and maintains the physiological and anatomical essence of the English term. Interestingly, both words seem to have the same Indo-European origin.⁶⁷ On the other hand, ‘father’ and ‘پدر’  have similar meanings and associations, although they may not always be interchangeable.⁶⁸

Here, we can observe similarities in denotation and connotation between English and Persian words. Specifically, when comparing the English word ‘tree’ and its Persian equivalent ‘ درخت,’ we observe that readers in both languages understand the same referent and connotation.⁶⁹

In most cases, it is not possible to match the denotation and connotation of words or phrases directly. Haim suggests several possibilities when a direct one-to-one mapping of one word or phrase on another is not feasible. In most cases, multiple different relations can be conceived between denotation and connotation. It is in these instances that the profound skills, creativity, and sensitivity of mind and ear of our lexicographer, Haim, are most clearly on display. As an example of a specific relation between denotation/connotation in which translation has a relative, rather than an absolute, denotative value, together with a satisfactory connotative value, let us consider the English phrase “Herculean labor.” Haim provides three Persian possibilities:کار پر زحمت، کار رستم نشان، کار حضرت فیل] ].⁷⁰ The third one, which translates to “the job of an elephant,” is informal and will be discussed separately. The first one, which means “laborious job,” is a literal translation without any cultural connotations. The second option is cultural, “the job that has the mark of Rustam,” and replaces the Greco-Roman hero Hercules with the Persian hero Rustam, who also faced difficult tasks requiring great strength. Here, Haim has assumed that his Persian-speaking readers were familiar with the stories of Rustam, while they may not have been familiar with the culturally specific Greek hero Hercules within mythology that is imported into the English language.

One example of a phrase that has no direct translation but has a similar meaning in another language is “Magna Carta.” In Persian, it is translated as “فرمان مشروطه,” which means “a constitutional decree.” This translation may not have a denotative connection to the original English phrase, but it conveys a clear and powerful meaning to Persian speakers.⁷¹ Although the two phrases refer to different historical events, they serve a similar function in their respective countries. This shows that there are relative equivalencies in terms of connotation, recognition of the term, frequency of usage, and associations of ideas.

The limitations and potential risks when using a bilingual dictionary to find corresponding images or ideas must be borne in mind. These risks can include oversimplification or misinterpretation, especially when dealing with cultural or historical references that are not fully understood. For example, we can classify the Haim equivalents for one ecclesiastical term into three different categories: Christian ecclesiastical equivalents (such as “کاهن بزرگ”], “اسقف]”, and “کشیش بزرگ”), Islamic terms (such as “امام”), and neutral equivalents (such as “پیشوا”)!  While it is true that two of the first options are acceptable alternatives, the second and third options either have issues or are debatable choices.⁷²

In addition, the words ‘ملت/nation’, ‘قوم/ethnos’, and ‘امت/Ummat’ are used interchangeably to refer to the modern term ‘nation,’ despite having different origins and meanings.⁷³ The concept of a ‘nation’ may be relatively new to the Persian culture, but the word ‘tribe’ has a long history and numerous equivalents in the Persian language. This is exemplified by Haim’s use of multiple Persian words to describe the concept of a ‘tribe,’ including ‘ قبیله’, ‘طایفه’, ‘ایل’, ‘عشیره’, and ‘سبط’.⁷⁴

Another example of an instance where the Persian equivalent has only a relative denotative value, but a satisfactory connotative value is the compound ‘وزارت داخله ’. In the United Kingdom, the term “Home Office” refers to the government department responsible for immigration and passports, drug policy, crime, fire, and police. While Haim’s translational equivalent may have some relative value in denotation, it more accurately corresponds to an internal affairs or home affairs ministry in its connotation.⁷⁵

Similarly, Haim rendered ‘House of Commons’ with the phrase ‘مجلس مبعوثان’, which refers to a group of individuals who have been specifically chosen to perform certain tasks or duties. The context of this presentation is not stated.⁷⁶ The Persian equivalent has a different meaning compared to the literal meaning of “commons,” which refers to people who are not of noble birth. The British House of Lords operates based on appointment, heredity, or official function, and therefore the Persian equivalent for House of Commons has a mostly implied meaning.

When translating between languages, words may have similar meanings but different cultural connotations. Haim addresses this by providing two Persian equivalents for English words. One is commonly used, while the other is used by professionals. An example of this is the word “Comedy,” which has two Persian equivalents: “کمدی” and “نمایش مضحک.” The first is the rendition used by professionals in theater, while the second is accessible to lay people.⁷⁷ Similarly, to render ‘tragedy’, he employs the terms ‘مصیبت’, ‘فاجعه’, and ‘تراژدی’. The former two refer to the general sense of the word, while the latter points to the dramatic art.⁷⁸

Likewise, Haim includes two translations for the English word “radiator” in his bilingual dictionary: “رادیاتور” and “گرما تاب.” The first is a transliteration, while the second reflects the device’s original etymology as a heat-transmitting device.⁷⁹ And for ‘television,’ he suggests: ‘انتقال شکل چیزی از دور’, ‘دوربینی’, and ‘تلویزیون’.⁸⁰ The first phrase represents the origin of the word and etymology functions as meaning, while the second one is neither exact nor specific, and the third is a Persian transliteration of the French term. The first phrase is user friendly, although the physical representation of the concept in the form of ‘television’ might be difficult to comprehend.

Similarly, he utilizes “قراییم” as the Arabic-Persian transliteration for the English term “Karaite,” which was initially described and clarified in a sentence as: عضو فرقه ای از بنی اسراییل که ….⁸¹

It is worth noting that on certain occasions, Haim provides only the transliterated form of an entry, while in other instances he suffices to presenting a literal rendition. To illustrate the first case, the term ‘Janissary’, is referred to as ‘ینگی چری’ in Persian. The term originated in the Ottoman Empire.⁸² An example of the second case is the phrase “عضو انقلابیون [تاریخ فرانسه], ” that he provides for ‘Jacobin,’ with no indication of its Persian transliteration as “ژاکوبن .”⁸³

Both English and Persian have relative denotations, but there may be a difference in the specific connotation of certain English words. For instance, while the English word ‘parliament’ is widely recognized, its Persian equivalent ‘پارلمان’ is not commonly used in everyday conversation. It is not included in typical Persian monolingual dictionaries and is only found in specialized textbooks on political science and law. Haim suggests using the Persian word ‘مجلس’ as an alternative, but a brief explanation may be necessary to capture the core meaning of the English term.⁸⁴

However, at times, Haim attempts to clarify the underlying significance of English entries for his Persian speaking audience to address the challenge of words connotations in the two languages. As an illustration, his Persian word-translation of the term ‘separation’ as a technical term is presented in the form of a lengthy sentence without parentheses, which refers to the physical separation of a husband and wife in terms of sleeping and eating, as opposed to divorce. It is understandable that using the singular and simple word “جدایی” as an equivalent is not sufficient because the meaning and significance of this word is unfamiliar and unclear to Haim’s contemporary audience. Persians of that era only thought of the opposite-pairs ‘marriage’ and ‘divorce’  and ‘separation’ as a third category requires further elaboration.⁸⁵

If a Persian lexical translation does not have the exact same meaning as the English term, Haim provides an equivalent based on connotation. This means that the translation may not be a literal match the original, but rather convey a similar meaning within the same semantic field. For instance, English has distinct words for “meat” and “flesh,” but Persian does not. Haim uses “گوشت” in Persian for both without distinguishing between the two.⁸⁶

On other occasions, however, Haim chooses to make English words more relatable to Persian readers by incorporating certain semantic characteristics. For instance, Haim uses a lengthy compound infinitive “بدون دادرسی قانونی کشتن یا مجازات کردن” to describe the transitive verb “lynch,” though his formulation might lack some essential features.⁸⁷To clarify, Haim includes additional features in the Persian entry to make up for the fact that there is no equivalent Persian word for ‘lynch.’ Although there is no direct translation, our lexicographer uses his impressive linguistic skill to compensate by including relevant characteristics that convey the word’s basic meaning. Similarly, Haim includes the medium length Persian sentence ‘زنی که هواخواه دادن حق انتخاب بزنان (بوده) است’  to describe the word ‘suffragette.’⁸⁸Although it does not include the sense of organized protest, the sentence does convey the fundamental characteristics of women advocating for the right to vote.

A different scenario is presented when a Persian equivalent, or more accurately, a transliteration is used for an English word based on its frequency. For instance, Haim lists ‘ماشین’ as the top choice for the noun ‘machine.’⁸⁹ If a Persian reader has no prior knowledge of a certain English word, they may not understand its meaning when they encounter it for the first time. In this case, Haim’s lack of features for ‘machine’ is surprising, as it suggests that he assumes everyone already knows its meaning. As a result, is it accurate to say that the Persian transliteration ‘ماشین’ is frequently used and makes up for the lack of this equivalent in Persian culture? It would perhaps have been preferable if the Persian explanation also included other connotational features.

Haim is aware that his equivalences may not be perfect, so he tries to minimize the gap between the denotation and connotation planes by adding extra lexical elements. Haim provides cases with unique features. For example, he translates ‘Declaration of Independence’ to ‘اعلامیه استقلال’ and includes ‘History of America’ in square brackets to show the context of the exact compound equivalent wording.⁹⁰  In this instance, Haim has suggested a two-word Persian compound as an equivalent for a specific two-word English term to reduce the distance between the denotation and its connotation to the minimum. We can compare this term with his equivalent of ‘بستنی آبی’ for ‘water-ice’. Despite its English form as a two-word term, its content is different or even incorrect.⁹¹

In one instance, Haim employs three different Persian words to represent the English word “theater.” Firstly, he uses the compound word “تماشاخانه” which translates theater to a place of watching and observing. This provides a literal and exact connotative or etymological equivalence. The second compound word “بازیگرخانه” is understandable, conventional and at the same time debatable, while the third word “تئآتر” is a transliteration that may be considered a denotative or imitative representation.⁹²

Simply put, our lexicographer has developed a method to bridge the gap between the denotation and connotation of a single English word borrowed from French. This is achieved by introducing Persian equivalents that capture the word’s etymological and general meanings, while also preserving the sound and economy of the English word through transliteration and mimologics. He lists ‘انجمنی’ and ‘مربوط به کنگره’ as possible equivalents for the English adjective ‘Congressional’ in his lexicon.⁹³ While the first word has a connotative meaning, they are not exactly analogous. The second word is more specific and denotative, with the intention of bridging the gap between connotation and denotation.

Whether he starts with the denotative as the first or second option is insignificant. Haim sometimes begins with the denotative level, as when he used “مولف دایره المعارف” for “encyclopedist”, and then follows with the connotative level “بحر العلوم”. Both of these are rather lengthy Arabic equivalents.⁹⁴ The first choice holds a literal meaning while the second one carries a figurative meaning. They are complementary translations that assist the Persian reader in understanding the term.

 

Extension/Intension

Every equivalence has two aspects, denotation, and connotation, which are formally and logically explained through the concept of “intension” and “extension.” “Intension” refers to the internal content of a word or term or concept that defines it formally, while “extension” refers to the range of objects it applies to by expressing them. For instance, the word “light” in English has an “intension” of illumination, and its “extensions” can be the sun, moon, lamps, or other similar objects.

In this section, we will attend to the various levels of connection between the intension and extension of Persian correspondents to English terms, and Haim’s proficiency in managing this logical aspect of lexicography.

One category to consider is that of “high intention” but “low extension.” An example of this is seen in the two Persian equivalents for “armchair.” Let us examine this further. Haim provides two equivalents for “armchair:” “صندلی دسته دار” and “صندلی بازودار,” which mean “a chair with arms or hands.”⁹⁵ Both the Persian word “صندلی” and its English equivalent “chair” have a broad and easily recognizable meaning due to their “high intension” feature. However, when it comes to the other element, such as “arm” in English and “بازو دار، دسته دار” in Persian, they display a “low extension” feature, which limits and restricts the definition of a chair. As to the word ‘desk,’ Haim first used the Persian compound term ‘میز تحریر’ to refer to it. The English word ‘desk’ has both low extension and intension, while Haim’s two-word Persian term has what we call “high intention” and “low extension.” Incorporating the word میز (meaning “desk” in Persian) expands upon the English definition of “desk” by including the concept of “high intention” and using the word تحریر to convey “low extension.” This essentially flips the original English word’s logical dimension from “low intension” to the opposite. While readers of the target language may not notice a difference, “desk” is seen as a type of table specifically used for reading and writing.

An example of an entry with a high extension but low intension is the Persian translative equivalent for “furniture,” which is typically rendered as “اثاثیه، اثاث البیت,” which means “any moveable household item.”⁹⁶ The Arabic/Persian equivalent of the English term has a similar feature to its counterpart, a “high extension” and “low intension.” Thus, it can be used for a variety of activities such as sitting, studying, eating, storing, sleeping, and working at home. Essentially, it refers to any movable equipment of significant size that helps human beings function more comfortably and conveniently.

Similarly, an example of a word with low intension but a high extension is “single”. It can be used to describe God, humans, life, heart, material things, and more. The Persian equivalents for “single” in English, such as “تک”, “یگانه”, “تنها”, “یکتا”, “مفرد” among others, also have low intension but wide application.⁹⁷

A different scenario occurs when both the source and target words have low extension and intension. In this context, we can mention the term ‘halo,’ which Haim introduced by an Arabic loanword: ‘’.هاله ⁹⁸ It is noteworthy that both the English and Persian words have a restricted definition and can only be used in certain circumstances, specifically referring to particular individuals and celestial bodies under defined conditions.

Likewise, Haim proposed the Persian compound term ‘خود ستایی’ for ‘narcissism,’ where both the English word and its Persian equivalent are on the same plane and have low intension and extension.⁹⁹

Clearly, any equivalent must reflect the source word. Therefore, using ‘سقا خانه’ as a translation for ‘drinking fountain’ is not correct. This Persian term is culturally specific and refers to a public space where observant Shia Muslims provide water freely to the thirsty for religious reward. ‘Drinking fountain’ is a secular term with a broad extension, whereas the Persian equivalent has a more specific meaning (intension) and limited usage (extension).¹⁰⁰ It is unclear if Haim intentionally chose a version of something that did not exist in Persian to simplify or provide a colloquial alternative. Meanwhile, the English entry for “drinking fountain” includes a wide range of shapes and sizes, but they all share the common purpose of providing free drinkable water to the public. This may confuse the reader unfamiliar with the lexicon. To Persian speakers, the word سقاخانه refers to a religious drinking spot rather than a bubbler fountain, which is a common association for English speakers in the West. Conversely, the English phrase may not be familiar to Persian speakers and could result in misinterpretation if the focus is not on the shared concept of quenching thirst with water.

In the same vein, Haim brings two Persian equivalents ‘دال دریایی’ and  ‘عقاب دریایی’for “erne,” an archaic name for a sea eagle.¹⁰¹ Haim’s choices for translating the English name are confusing. The first Persian equivalent, “sea vulture,” is incorrect because it does not accurately describe the animal. This is a perplexing omission as Persian has a specific word for “eagle.” The second equivalent uses the correct Persian word and combines it with “sea” to create a proper compound word for “sea eagle” in English. Haim’s first translation as “sea vulture” may reflect his lack of knowledge about zoology, the rarity of sea eagles in Iran, or some other unclear cause. In other words, Haim made a mistake in recognizing the exact extension of the English word. It is difficult to ascertain if this mistake results from a specific viewpoint that aims to transform the clear and specific meaning of “erne” into something more culturally appropriate and ambiguous.

Similarly, in English, the word ‘crocodile’ has a clear and specific meaning and extension. However, when Persian readers come across the equivalents in Haim’s work, which include ‘تمساح’ ،’نهنگ’, and ‘سوسمار’, ¹⁰² they may encounter a lack of clarity in both intension and extension. Each Persian word has its own unique reference and meaning that are not usually combined by regular Persian readers.

Haim’s approach to extension and intension is exemplified in a case involving an English word and its Persian equivalent with similar sounds. To handle the issue of unfamiliar cultural concepts in the target language, lexicographers transliterate the source word or phrase. Haim aims to remove foreign words from the Persian language, particularly those borrowed from Arabic, English, and French. However, he recognizes that this may not always be possible and that doing so could undermine the ability of people to understand.

As an example, he proposes two terms for “Freemason” that may be used interchangeably: ‘ ‘عضو فراموش خانه، فراماسون [فرانسه].¹⁰³ The first option is a transliteration of the English word (not the French “francmaçon”). However, to a Persian speaker, this combination of letters may sound like a foreign word with an unclear meaning in Persian. Haim’s second definition describes someone ‘who belongs to a secretive organization that requires them to keep it confidential even after they leave’. This definition effectively conveys the level of secrecy demanded by Freemasonry, without limiting it to the strict literal intension and extension of the English term. Haim utilizes a straightforward transliteration method combined with a Persian short description that goes beyond the literal and etymological definition. This Persian description encompasses elements that are not present in the English word and refers to a specific pillar of Freemasonry. We may surmise from this example that Haim viewed intension as a flexible and adaptable concept.

Similarly, the term ‘Zionist’ is first presented with its Hebrew phonological forms, ṣīyōn/صیونیت , and ṣīyhōn/صهیونی , followed by Haim’s intended equivalent expressed in an infinitive phrase, ‘هواخواه تمرکز دادن بنی اسرائیل در فلسطین’, which conveys the core idea of Zionism as advocating for the amassing of Israelites in Palestine.¹⁰⁴.

At the same time, the term “Brahman,” which the English language borrowed from Hindi, occasions a different iteration of extension/intension, as Haim proposes only ‘برهمن’,¹⁰⁵ which omits the varied interpretations of its extension/intension in English.¹⁰⁶ Haim created an equivalent for the English term, which is a direct transliteration without gloss. This is unlike the equivalents he made for “Freemason” and “Zionist” which included glosses. However, the transliteration is not entirely perfect because the Persian word has an ‘h – ه ‘ in the middle, which is not usually pronounced in American English. This equivalent can be seen as a new word, and it draws an equivalence between extension and intension at a literal and formal level. Formally, the two words sound similar, and literally, they are identical because Haim assigned the meaning of “Brahman” to the phonemes, برهمن.

In contrast, Haim offers a two-word compound “شلوار گشاد” and a lengthy explanation (which I won’t include here) for the English word “pajamas,” emphasizing explicitly its derivation from the Persian term “”پا جامه.¹⁰⁷ Rather than using the Persian word from which the English derives, he provides, inexplicably, more descriptive words and examples. It is unclear why he does not use the familiar Persian extension ‘پیژاما، پیژامه’ (though for ‘bazaar’ he brings exclusively ‘بازار’) instead—as he had done in the case of ‘برهمن’.¹⁰⁸

 Conclusion

The present study probed Haim’s philosophy of translation as reflected in his two-volume English-Persian dictionary. The above examples illustrate the lexicographer’s rich command of word-translation, on display in the useful and functional Persian equivalents that he has identified for a slew of English entries.

Works Consulted

Bogaards, Paul (2013), Bilingual Lexicography, in Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, C.A. Chapelle (ed.,), Blackwell Publishing, pp. 1-7.

Corréard, M-H. (2006). Bilingual lexicography. In K. Brown (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2nd ed., Vol. I, pp. 786-797), Elsevier.

“Commemorating the Legacy of Soleiman Haim, Father of the Bilingual Dictionary,” available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bvL0v3BniYA

Duval, A. (1991). L’équivalence dans le dictionnaire bilingue. In F. J. Hausmann, O. Reichmann, H. E. Wiegand, & L. Zgusta (Eds.), Wörterbücher: Ein internationales Handbuch zur Lexikographie/Dictionaries: An international encyclopedia of lexicography/ Dictionnaires: Encyclopédie international de lexicographie (Vol. 3, pp. 2817–2824). De Gruyter.

Emami, K. (2020), “Karistan-i Suleyman Haim {Haim’s Magnum Opus},” https://motarjemjournal.ir/2020/07/2976

Haim, Daryush, Asef, Bijan, and Adhami, Davud, (1999), “Negahi bi zendegani-i Suleyman Haim,” http://www.iranjewish.com/essay/Essay_36_haeem.htm

Haim, Suleyman, Persian-English Proverbs, available at https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.544141/page/n831/mode/2up

Bukhara, “Celebrating Suleyman Haim,”: https://bukharamag.com/1393.10.7081.html

Haim, Suleyman, The Larger English Persian Dictionary, A-K, available at: https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.260242/page/611/mode/2up

Haim, Suleyman, The Larger English Persian Dictionary, L-Z, available at: https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.15245/page/n7/mode/2up

Webster Dictionary, 1940s, available at: https://archive.org/details/websterscollegia00spri

Zgusta, Ladislav (1987), “Translational Equivalence in a Bilingual Dictionary,” Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America 9.1- 47.

7Dorim, “Nobility: Suleyman Haim,” available at: https://www.7dorim.com/en/nobility/solayman-haim/

Notes

¹ The author gratefully acknowledges the generous support of the Memorial Foundation for Jewish Culture in New York (MFJC).

² Ladislav Zgusta et al., Wörterbücher / Dictionaries / Dictionnaires, De Gruyter Mouton 1991.Teilband 3,

³ One example of secondary literature on Haim’s achievements is found at: http://www.iranjewish.com/essay/Essay_36_haeem.htm; https://www.7dorim.com/شخصیت-ها/haeem_solieman/; see and the retrospectives at https://bukharamag.com/1393.10.7081.html andhttps://motarjemjournal.ir/2020/07/2976)

⁴ Paul Bogaards 2013, 4.

⁵ https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.15245/page/735/mode/2up.

⁶ https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.15245/page/n1325/mode/2up?view=theater

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⁶⁶ Duval 1991, 2818 &  2819

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¹⁰⁴ https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.15245/page/n1325/mode/2up?view=theater

¹⁰⁵ https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.260242/page/169/mode/2up

¹⁰⁶ https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.260242/page/169/mode/2up

¹⁰⁷ https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.15245/page/689/mode/2up?view=theater

¹⁰⁸ https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.544297/page/69/mode/2up?view=theater